Intellectual Property

Intellectual property is something you must be very well acquainted with. Knowing about the issues surrounding IP in thesis writing will help you stay clear of violating copyright regulations. The pages that follow will guide you on the procedures you should follow to avoid copyright infringement.

Writing

What is your preferred style of writing, and how can you become a more effective writer? The following will help you become a confident, polished writer.

Tools and Resources

It is very important to have the right tools and resources at your disposal when writing your thesis so that you can increase your efficiency and boost your productivity. The following pages contain some valuable thesis writing tools and resources.

What is a suitable title for your thesis?

The title of your thesis should be meaningful, yet concise, so as to draw the reader's attention. The title should contain only essential keywords to maintain brevity. Try to avoid using the phrases "Observations of...", "Effects of...", "Studies of...", "Performance of...", etc. in your thesis title, as these are generic and are not useful to the reader. The title should also indicate your research methodology. Place the most important words at the start of the title, and do not use abbreviations or jargon.

Writing the abstract of your thesis

The abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Think of it as a snapshot of your thesis, that contains the:

Chapter 1: Introduction

The Introduction addresses the question: 'What is the problem?'

• Include enough background information so that the problem can be placed in the proper context.
• Explore the nature and scope of the problem.
• State the objectives of the study. The objectives should be clear enough for readers to readily identify.
• Briefly discuss the significance of your research (Why is your research of scholarly import?).
• The methodology should be summarized, but not described in detail.
• State the limitations of your research.
• Define the scope (self-imposed boundaries)-Why and how you narrowed your study.
• State the assumptions on which you based your research. This enhances the credence of your research.
• Define key terms in order to clarify vague or context-specific terms used throughout your thesis.
• Provide a summary of the layout of how the thesis is organized (a description of what each chapter entails).

Chapter 2: Literature Review

• The literature review must relate the literature to the objectives of your research.
• Jargon should be avoided, as theses typically have wide audiences.
• New ideas, points of view, or hypotheses, rather than new experimental facts, should be presented.
• A review should not consist of summaries of paper abstracts.
• The first paragraph must carefully limit the scope of the review.
• All relevant published data should be included and discussed even when it does not appear to support your hypotheses.
• When published papers are contradictory, and you cannot select one view over the other, then you should state the situation.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The Methodology (aka Materials and Methods) describes in detail how you conducted your research. Meticulous attention must be given to the level of detail in this section for two reasons: there must be sufficient detail to allow for other researchers to duplicate your work, and, given that you are not yet an established researcher, you must prove your research capabilities.

• The methods are written in the past tense, as a thesis is a report on what was done.
• Use precise words and sentences.
• The Methodology is not a step-by-step laboratory manual, and so the pronoun "you" is not to be used.
• Identify and define the materials used such that the reader could obtain the same materials.
• Use a logical order when describing the methods, such as chronological. Related methods can be described together.
• Common statistical and laboratory methods need not be described but should be identified with a reference to a standard book or research paper where the method is described.

Chapter 4: Results

The results section of your thesis presents the important or representative research data that you collected (detailed data is often given in the appendix or on a CD/DVD attached to the back of the thesis).

• Correctly measured results that cannot be readily explained or do not agree with the general trend of the remaining results must be included.
• Present data in one form only, i.e., do not present data in a table if they are already provided in the text.
• Every table and figure must be cited in the text and should appear immediately following the first reference to it in the text.
• Do not use phrases such as: "it is clearly shown that", "it is obvious that", or "any fool can see that", as such phrases insult the reader's intelligence.
• Do not present your results in a such a way that causes the reader to question the importance of the results; eliminate ambiguity.




Chapter 5: Discussion

The Discussion affords you the opportunity to explore the significance of your research results.

Points to consider when writing the Discussion:

• The Discussion must satisfy the objectives as outlined in the Introduction.
• Discuss principles, relationships, and generalizations relevant to your results.
• Include important exceptions even though you cannot explain them.
• Do not discuss every little detailed result. In so doing you may shift focus away from your significant contributions.
• Some speculation is encouraged, provided it is clearly identified as such and is meaningful.
• Discuss the theoretical implications, as well as practical applications, of your results.
• Compare your results with other published work.
• Do not state cause and effect relationships that have not been proven. Frequently, experimental data can only be used to develop correlations, rather than to prove cause and effect relationships.
• Finish your discussion with a summary of the significance of your research findings to the field.




Chapter 6: Conclusions

The Conclusions is where you synthesize and summarize the chief results of your research.

Points to consider when writing the Conclusions:

• The Conclusions must answer the objectives, and in the same order, as presented in the Introduction.
• Discuss the limitations of your research.
• Do not introduce new ideas/concepts that have not been discussed in the Discussion.
• Suggest ideas for future work.




Avoiding plagiarism: How to appropriately reference the works of others

“Avoiding plagiarism is an attempt to identify the boundaries of a discipline--what needs to be connected explicitly back up to other works, what can go without saying, what is novel or interesting. In some cases, it involves sharing responsibility for work with others. In other words, identifying plagiarism involves defining intellectual property” (Johnson-Eilola, 1998, How should we be teaching about plagiarism differently in schools?)

When using the ideas and/or words of others in your thesis, it is important to know how to appropriately reference that information. Inappropriate referencing involves plagiarism, and consists of any use - large or small - of another’s words, ideas, methods, and/or findings, that are not correctly attributed to the original author.

As a graduate student you are expected to know the rules about plagiarism. The Faculty of Graduate Studies and your graduate program will expect that not only are familiar with the term plagiarism but that you know how to avoid plagiarism in your work.




There are three ways to appropriately reference source material to avoid plagiarism: quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.



• Quoting
  

  When you quote you copy exactly what the author has said. You are not only using the author’s ideas but also how they expressed the ideas. It is imperative that you indicate that you are quoting by using “quotes.”

  For example, consider the following paragraph:
  “Higher Education and society benefit when colleges and universities have standards of integrity that provide the foundation for a vibrant academic life, promote scientific progress, and prepare students for responsible citizenship.” (Center for Academic Integrity, 1999, p.4)

  • The following is an appropriate quote:
    The Center for Academic Integrity (1999) states in their policy document that universities and colleges gain when they ensure that they “have standards of integrity that provide the foundation for a vibrant academic life, promote scientific progress, and prepare students for responsible citizenship” (p. 4).
  • The following is an inappropriate quote:
    Academic integrity is an important part of university life. “Each group needs to uphold [its] own responsibility and do it well, without making excuses, for academic integrity to truly flourish” (The Center for Academic Integrity, 1999, p.9).
    (This quote is inappropriate because: there is no obvious connection to the previous sentence, it is 'added on' rather than integrated, it does not appear to be quoting someone in authority, and it is not saying something in a novel way).
  
  
• Summarizing

  When you summarize you are presenting a concise explanation of a book or the main ideas of article. For example, the book The Life of Pi could be summarized as “a young boy survives his ship sinking at sea and lives for months on a life boat with a tiger.” A summary can be brief, like the one above or more complex depending on how you are using it. For example, you might be noting other research in passing (a brief summary) or explaining a theory in detail (a complex summary). For more information on summarizing, see the handout developed by the Learning Assistance Centre.

  
  
• Paraphrasing

  When you paraphrase you present other people’s ideas, theories and data in your own words. Paraphrasing focuses on a smaller section (usually a paragraph or a couple sentences) of text. Please note that paraphrasing is not plagiarism if it done properly. It is very important that as a graduate student you know how to properly paraphrase. When paraphrasing, you must not re-create the original text in word or in style and even though you are using your own words, you must include a reference. For more information on paraphrasing, see the handout developed by the Learning Assistance Centre. Additional examples of correct and incorrect paraphrasing may be found here.

  
  
  

  Obtaining permission for the use of copyrighted material in your thesis

  As a graduate student you must be aware that if your thesis includes copyrighted material, you are responsible for clearing copyright by obtaining permission from the copyright holder. Images or more than a reasonable extract (according to the Copyright Act) of another person’s work must be accompanied by written permission from the copyright holder(s). You may use either the Learning Technologies Centre's copyright permission letter generator, or the Faculty of Graduate Studies' copyright permission form to obtain copyright clearance. In some cases, copyright holders prefer to use their own permission forms and/or will provide their permission electronically. Both of these are acceptable by FGS

  Obtaining the permission may take a considerable amount of time, therefore this must be taken into consideration when meeting a thesis submission deadline. A reference to written permission having been obtained must be included under the image or text. The reference should also include the date the permission was granted, and the name/title of the copyright holder(s). The original form(s) signed by the copyright holders should be retained by the student with a copy provided to FGS at the completion of the thesis/practicum.

  The thesis/practicum cannot be accepted by FGS if permission has not been obtained. It is important that the student and their advisor ensure that the permission has been granted. In some cases the copyright holder cannot be located or the cost is prohibitive to using the text or image. In these situations the text or image may have to be omitted from the thesis/practicum. Subsequently, information on where the reader can locate the image or text should be included, such as the URL, title of book/journal, volume and issue number, page number, publisher, and date of publication. A description of the purpose or significance of the text or image should be provided.

  (To learn more about copyright issues relevant to you as a graduate student, why not take the online U of M Libraries Copyright Quiz?)

  
  
  

  Methods for Writing: What is your strategy?

  What method for writing do you frequently use?  If you have never thought about it before, give it a moment of reflection.  When you undertake a writing project, any project, whether it is a term paper, technical/lab report, or your thesis, how do you approach it? 

  Daniel Chandler (1995) has constructed labels for categories that vividly capture the qualities of four very different writing strategies. His four strategies provide some insight into the writing characteristics and behaviours that we see in ourselves and in those around us. Below is a brief summary of Chandler’s specific categories. Which writing strategy best describes you?
  
  
  Architectural Strategy

  The architectural strategy involves planning as the initial stage of writing.  Through the process of planning, the shape and scope of the work emerges before the actual writing begins. The planning phase is critical as it sets the foundation for constructing the text during the writing stage. You may see an architectural strategist employ multiple outlines, index cards and sticky-notes which organize, in great detail, every section of text to be written.  This is an entirely systematic approach:  You plan. Then you write. Then you edit. Period. 
  
  
  Bricklaying Strategy

  This strategy is very linear and methodical as a writing method. Unfortunately it can be very slow since writers who use it tend to painstakingly craft every word, sentence, and paragraph. They take the time to revise, edit and polish each line before moving onto the next one. Bricklaying strategists may declare that they don’t revise their work very much. While that may be true in terms of not engaging in a formal editing phase as part of their writing process, it is not really true since they are constantly revising and editing while they write. Writing and revising are integrated. 
  
  
  Oil-painting Strategy

  Oil painting strategists work and revise entire drafts of their writing. The initial stage of writing is to get all ideas, no matter how disjointed or irrelevant, down in a rough draft.  Then the process of elaborating on and connecting the ideas takes over. The oil-painting strategist does not need to work through the text in a systematic fashion. Moreover, they are not fixed to everything they write; they are able to discard large sections of their work if it doesn’t fit or flow. They are malleable writers. A hallmark of oil painter strategists is that they mix different ideas, repeatedly blending the content of what they’ve written until they feel the work as a whole is finished. 
  
  
  Water-colour Strategy

  The water-colour strategist tries to write in the moment. In order to capture or preserve the spirit and energy of their creative process, there is often less reworking or editing the text for fear of it losing its authenticity. As such, this strategy places emphasis on the ability to complete a writing task in one sitting, with as little follow-up manipulation of the final product as is possible. 
  
  
  Mixed Strategies

  Keep in mind that these are not necessarily fixed approaches to writing.
  In addition, no one strategy is better than another. In the end, it is the quality of the final written product that is of merit. Also, writers may use different strategies or combine them depending on things like the nature of the writing task or the amount of time they have to complete a writing assignment. What is interesting though is that, according to Chandler, if a writer merges strategies the pairing is most likely to be bricklaying/architectural and least likely to be oil painting/water-colour or oil painting/bricklaying.  This may take on significance when you are working with someone else, whether it’s another student or your advisor. 
  
  
  

  Since some strategies may be more compatible than others, it makes sense, whenever possible, to choose to work with people whose style is somewhat complimentary. Otherwise, there can be unexpected challenges to overcome.

  • As an example, imagine you decide it’s time to write the “first draft” of your thesis.  You’re using an oil painting strategy. You submit the draft knowing that it is rough; it’s clearly a work in progress. You deliberately have not attended to details like formatting and style since you are certain that things will change over several iterations. There are point-form bullets throughout the draft without introductory or transition sentences to explain them…. At this point you submitted the draft merely to obtain feedback on the ideas it contains. Unbeknownst to you your advisor uses an architectural strategy. The paper is promptly returned to you. She tells you that it doesn’t make any sense – it’s not organized and thus she didn’t read much past page 8.  She provides you with some samples of completed theses for you to use as a writing guide for format and style, and asks you to include with the next version the detailed outline you developed during the planning stages of your writing.
  While having an advisor whose strategy is different from yours is not an insurmountable barrier, it can pose some difficulties regarding expectations, and create frustration when those expectations are violated. Asking questions about writing strategies and coming to a consensus about writing expectations before you commit to an advisor can be of tremendous help in avoiding unnecessary conflict.

   
  

  Improving your writing skills

  Graduate students ought to expect a more critical assessment of the basic mechanics of their writing. This includes a more rigorous evaluation of writing elements such as grammar, punctuation and spelling, overall organization and flow, clarity, and the appropriateness of the writing style used throughout the thesis.

  The following handouts, prepared by the Learning Assistance Centre, provide excellent instruction on the proper use of grammar.

  
  
• Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive Clauses
  
• Sentence Structure
  
• That or Which
  
• The Colon
  
• The Semicolon
  
  The Learning Assistance Centre also offers free writing support sessions for graduate students. For information on booking an appointment, click here.
  
  
  For a thorough treatment on the proper mechanics of writing, the book The Elements of Style, by William Strunk Jr., is an unparalleled resource, and highly recommended. You can read this book online for free here.
  
  
  
  

  Thesis template available for download

  A thesis template is an invaluable tool for writing your thesis since it contains many automated features that save you time. For instance, rather than having to manually format chapter titles and subtitles, paragraph spacing, page numbering, and the table of contents, a thesis template will do all of this for you (and more) so that you can focus on writing.

  
  The following thesis template available for download has been developed in accordance with the Faculty of Graduate Studies thesis guidelines. The style and layout of this thesis has been adapted by Mr. Nathan Kesler from
  Dr. Jason Morrison's PhD thesis entitled Geometric Placement Problems. Although this template conforms to the FGS guidelines, your department may have additional requirements (for instance, the style may need to be APA, or MLA). As such, be sure to first check with your advisor if this template is acceptable before you use it to write your thesis.
  
  
  
• Thesis template download
  
  -Thesis template instructions for Word 2007
  -Thesis template instructions for Word 2003
  
  
  Note:
  This template has not been tested in Word for Mac, and therefore may not work properly in this program.
  

  Consider organizing your references with Refworks

  Sometimes students get into the habit of waiting until their thesis is close to completion before adding the references to their thesis. Please avoid this! In fact, researching the literature, selecting source material, and introducing sources into your thesis should be done concurrently. Consider using a reference management software, such as Refworks, to help you organize your references.

  
  
  

  Bolker, J. (1998) Writing Your Dissertation in Fifteen Minutes a Day: A Guide to Starting, Revising, and Finishing Your Doctoral Thesis. New York: Owl Books.

  Booth, W.C., G.G. Colomb, J.M. Williams. (2003). The Craft of Research. (2nd ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Davis, M. (2005). Scientific papers and presentations. Burlington, MA: Academic Press.

  Giltrow, J. (2002). Academic writing: Writing & reading in the disciplines. (3rd ed.). Peterborough: Broadview Press.

  Glatthorn, A. A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

  Kennedy, M. L. & Smith, H. M. (2005). Reading and writing in the academic community. (3rd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

  Levine, S. J. (2005, September 18). Writing & presenting your thesis or dissertation. Retrieved on July 30, 2008 from http://www.learnerassociates.net/dissthes/

  Simpson, E. (2001, January). Thinking about your thesis. University Affairs. Retrieved on July 30, 2008 from http://www.universityaffairs.ca/issues/2001/jan/jan-thesis-2.pdf