Ethics for graduate students
Since it is not possible to write just one document about ethics and have it cover the topic in its entirety or serve all graduate students, perhaps the best approach is promote ethics education as part of your graduate student experience. If your program requirements do not directly oblige you to study ethics, especially related to your own discipline, then seek out the education on your own. Read about ethics in theory but also in practice (case studies are very good for this), and of course ask lots of questions.
This module consists of the following pages:
What is ethics?
According to the Canadian Oxford dictionary (2001) [1], ethics is:
“1. (usu. treated as sing.) the science of morals in human conduct: moral philosophy. 2. a (treated as pl.) moral principles; rules of conduct [emphasis added]. b (often treated as pl.) a set of these (medical ethics). 3. (treated as pl.) moral correctness (the ethics of his decision are doubtful) “ (p. 478).
In his book, Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, Blackburn (2003) [2] asserts that, “Human beings are ethical animals.” ( p. 4). However, he also states that being an ethical animal does not mean that we are inherently good or will necessarily follow established standards or rules of conduct.
Rather, Blackburn proposes that we are constantly seeking information about and measuring our interpretations of what we know and how we feel against those of a larger group. By doing so we are able to assess the prevailing “ethical climate” (p. 3) and determine whether our ways (and those of others) fit-in with the ethical principles of the day.
The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics provides an excellent definition of ethics in their publication, Issues in Ethics (1987) [3]:-
"Ethics is two things. First, ethics refers to well based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well founded reasons.
Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards...feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based."
Why study ethics?
You may ask why ethics education is important as part of your professional graduate student training if you’re not planning on becoming an ethicist? Well, ethical issues arise very frequently in academia, in all kinds of ways: what topics to teach and how to teach them; hiring practices; accommodations for staff and students; intellectual property; controversial practices, research or theories; alterations to research to receive funding; privately or corporately funded research; research on humans, animals, and the environment; academic scandals; the list goes on and on. Knowing then that you cannot avoid the ‘big E’ if you plan on working in academia, you are wise to embrace learning about it. Take a life-long learning approach too, because ethical notions and principles are forever in flux. Ethics, like many other ways of thinking, change over time.
Make the most of your opportunity as a student in a training environment to learn about:
- The research-/scholarship-/scientific-based ideologies and values of your discipline, beyond that of your advisor
- How and why practices and principles evolved the way they did.
- What is the ethical foundation for the rote rules and research protocols?
- What are some common ethical issues, and some less common ones, that others in your department or field have had to resolve or at least consider?
- How did they resolve or balance the issues?
- What were the outcomes – positive and negative?
- What are the significant controversial issues in your field?
- Why did they emerge?
- How many sides are there to a particular controversy and what is the reasoning behind the arguments?
- How do researchers engage in the debate?
- Facing an ethical dilemma, and what you should do.
- With whom can you speak about it?
- Whose opinions do you trust?
- The consequences of breaching an ethical principle.
- What are the consequences based upon?
- Who can you trust to help you if you are in trouble?
Case studies are an excellent way of learning about ethics in your discipline of study, and many are freely available online. On the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics' website for instance, there are several good case studies, ranging from the fields of business to technology. Click here to access these case studies.
Question your thoughts and feelings in response to what you learn, and work to really understand your viewpoint on issues, not just whether you think something is good or bad, right or wrong. The development of an ethical foundation is part of your professional growth. As an emerging researcher you have a duty to learn how to engage in and produce ethical research and ethically represent your findings. And if one day you are bestowed with the privileged title of “Professor”, then you’ve become a teacher and role-model for others; hopefully, this also means you engage in ethical research and adhere to ethical standards within your discipline.
Ethical decision making
Moral principles and rules of conduct serve as guidelines for ethical practices. Within a particular discipline, knowing and adhering to the rules of conduct helps us establish a framework to weigh ethical matters and make sound ethical decisions. The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics offers some valuable tips for
creating a framework in ethical decision making.
The ability to utilize an ethical framework does not make the decision-making any easier, nor does it guarantee the right decision will be made since, sometimes, there is no absolute right decision at all. Nevertheless, guidelines are very helpful. Ethical guidelines can provide some context for defining issues and assessing the merits of outcomes. As such they can help you to identify which outcomes may be the least and/or most ethical; you are then in a better position to make ethical decisions, based upon the information you have available.
Sometimes, however, making the right or best decision may be rather difficult; you may be encountering an ethical dilemma, in which:
- The best or right thing to do is unclear given the information you have available.
- Some variable (rule, value, interest, emotion, etc) is in competition or conflict with another.
- The outcome, no matter what, will cause harm, hardship, negative effect, etc.
Try to determine:
- What ethical principles come into play?
- What are the issues causing the dilemma?
- What are the facts that comprise the issues?
- What is your obligation to act?
- What are your options?
Then begin to assemble the information you have collected to:
- Weigh the options, including ethical principles and obligations.
- Choose the best option with due consideration for:
- Rules or laws that must be followed.
- Consequences that may emerge.
- Your own personal values (you have to live with your decisions).
- Whether your decision will impact others, and if so, what your duty of care is.
If you are still unsure about what to do, talk to those you trust, such as friends, superiors, and authorities in your own field or the field of ethics. You may also consider consulting with ethics experts at the University of Manitoba's Centre for Professional and Applied Ethics
Finally, whatever you decide: You must accept responsibility for your actions.
Animal care, biosafety, and human ethics in research
At the University of Manitoba, research and scientific inquiry are highly valued pursuits. However, the mitigation of risks and the protection of human and animal populations, and vulnerable environments, are equally valued. To balance these two values, the University has developed ethics committees for the various disciplines across campus. These committees or Research Ethics Boards (REB’s) vet research proposal and give special attention to whether the research adheres to ethical principles, duty of care, and the mitigation of risks and harm to human and animal research populations. In doing so, University provides the researcher with a sounding board and a means to verify s/he has thoughtfully identified and aptly resolved ethical issues.
- If your research involves animals, fish, or invertebrates, visit the University of Manitoba's Office of Research Services Animal Care website to become aware of your animal care responsibilities as a graduate student. This site contains information on animal user training courses/seminars and wet labs, animal use protocol and course registration forms, and compliance guidelines.
- If your research involves bacteria, viruses, plasmids, recombinant DNA, animal tissues, radioactive materials, or other biohazards, visit the U of M Biosafety Program website. Here you will find information on biosafety training sessions (dates and registration), and resources such as the U of M Biosafety Guide.
- If your research involves human subjects, human tissue, human stem cells, or data collected on human subjects, visit the U of M Human Ethics website to familiarize yourself with the various Research Ethics Boards (REBs) and procedures for obtaining REB approval prior to commencing your research. This website also contains the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS) and an on-line TCPS tutorial. The University of Manitoba's policy involving Human subjects can be found here.
The fact that ethical issues exist in a research processes does not necessarily mean that innovative, controversial, and sometimes high-risk studies ought not be undertaken. However, when ethical questions arise, there is an obligation placed upon the researcher, and the University, to address them and wherever possible to reduce or eliminate the possibility for harm or other negative outcomes.
Scientific and Scholarly Misconduct
Integrity in scholarship and academic research is built upon ethical standards common within academic circles and across academics at large. The adherence to these strict principles of integrity and honesty in all facets of scientific inquiry and research, and in reporting of findings with the utmost care and accuracy, are cornerstones in the creation and sharing of knowledge.
Some examples of misconduct include:
- any form of cheating
- fabrication or misrepresentation of facts or data
- plagiarism
- violations of confidentiality owed to participants
- breaches in research protocols to alter research outcomes
Such violations of scientific and scholarly standards are taken very seriously by the University of Manitoba and are subject to a wide range of penalties. All graduate students are responsible for learning about and practicing academic integrity. All graduate students are responsible for adhering to the principles of scientific and scholarly conduct according to their own disciplines as they conduct the research they require for their theses and dissertations.
If you are under investigation for any type of academic offence or research violation, or if you are concerned about academic or research issues, contact Student Advocacy. Student Advocacy provides confidential services, information, and consultation to University of Manitoba students.
You can make a difference
The following are tips on how you can be an ethical role model for others.
- Demonstrate integrity. Adhere to ethical principles and obligations in your decisions and actions.
- Respect your ethical obligations. Adhere to University of Manitoba policies and procedures, and those of the broader research community.
- Do not condone unethical conduct.
- Demonstrate courage: Face ethical challenges with determination and strength of character.
- Be honest in your decisions and actions.
- Use resources appropriately and in the best interests of the scientific community.
- Be fair, just and equitable in your decisions and actions.
- Be responsible. Learn to perform your research and scholarship duties with competence, diligence and dedication.
- Be accountable for and accept the consequences of your decisions and actions.
University Policies
The following University policies pertain to ethical conduct. You should familiarize yourself with these policies.
Some useful ethics resources
Further reading on ethics at the University of Manitoba libraries
Accountability in research. Published: New York: Gordon and Breach, 1989.
Arneson, P. (2007). Exploring communication ethics: Interviews with influential scholars in the field. New York: Peter Lang.
Bell, M. A., Ezell, B. & Van Roekel, J. L. (2007). Cybersins and digital good deeds: a book about technology and ethics New York: Haworth Press.
Caplan, A. L., McCartney, J. J., & Sisti, D. A. (2006). The case of Terri Schiavo: Ethics at the end of life. New York: Prometheus Books.
Crary, A. (2007). Beyond moral judgment. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Fry, S. T., & Veatch, R. M. (2006). Case studies in nursing ethics. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Herlihy, B., & Corey, G. (2006). ACA ethical standards casebook. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Jonsen, A. R., Siegler, M., & Winslade, W. J. (2006). Clinical ethics: A practical approach to ethical decisions in clinical medicine. New York: McGraw Hill, Medical Pub. Division.
Journal for cultural research. Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK: Carfax Pub., 2002.
Kearney, R., & Dooley, M. (Eds.). Questioning ethics: Contemporary debates in philosophy. New York: Routledge.
Kupperman, J. (2007). Ethics and qualities of life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mottram, K.P. (2007). Caring for those in crisis: Facing ethical dilemmas with patients and families. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brazos.
MacCleave, A. P. (1989). Processes of adopting a CHEA code of ethics. Halifax, NS: Mount St. Vincent University.
Parrott, L. (2006). Values and ethics in social work. Exeter: Learning Matters.
Philp, M. (2007). Political conduct. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Pinnington, A. H., Macklin, R., & Campbell, T. (2007). Human resource management: Ethics and employment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sharp, D. J. (Ed.). (2006). Cases in business ethics. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Snyder, L. (2007). Complementary and alternative medicine : ethics, the patient, and the physician. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press.
Switzer, N. J. (1996) Euthanasia and assisted suicide: Consideration of medical, legal and ethical issues: A response to the June 1995 Senate report: Of Life and Death.
| Page Content By: Student Advocacy (Last Revised Jul 8, 2008) |
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